Page numbers followed by “n” refer to notes at end of chapter.
accountability 7, 39, 49, 55, 187, 190–8; for corruption 109; and the Great Depression 18; 198–201; for policy 190, 196–8; sanction vs. congruence model 192, 196, 198; for shark attacks 19; by sortition 200–01
Achen, Christopher 17–19
Adams, John 6, 23, 27, 77, 80, 166, 196
Agenda Council see multi-body sortition
agenda setting: in Athens 65–6, 95; by citizens 15, 38, 235; media influence and 35–7, 41–2, 115–17, 124; by politicians 32, 35–8, 43, 65, 81–2, 113, 117, 124–5, 193–6, 234, 247; under sortition 196–8, 215, 232, 234–5, 240
American Revolution 5–6, 67–8, 72; see also Founders, and Framers of Constitution
Annan, Kofi 12
aristocracy and elections 8, 14–15, 65–8, 71–2, 78, 81, 84, 150; see also oligarchy
Aristotle 109; on democracy vs. oligarchy 8, 65–6; on diversity 150, 166, 186; on principle of equality and likeness 248
Athens and Athenian democracy see Greek democracy
artificial intelligence (AI) 12, 98, 142, 227
Australia see citizens’ assemblies, examples of
backlash effect 127–8
Barber, Benjamin 58, 134–5, 144, 177
Belgium see citizens’ assemblies, examples of
Bengal famine (grain diversion) 30
Bentham, Jeremy 15, 70, 90, 220, 231
bias see cognitive biases
bicameralism 85, 242, 246–50, 254–5
blacks (African Americans) 24, 55, 82–3, 113, 243
Blackstone, William 68
Bouricius, Terrill (Terry): as a candidate 33–4, 54, 141; as a democracy reformer 11–12, 40, 137, 170, 209, 228, 242, 256; as a lawmaker 9–10, 38, 41, 43, 45, 46, 53, 61n4, 75, 113, 148
Brennan, Jason 176–7
British Columbia Citizens’ Assembly see citizens’ assemblies, examples of
Brutus (Anti-Federalist) 78, 80
Buckley, William F., Jr. 10
Burke, Edmund 74–5, 77, 80, 94, 107, 150, 195, 197
Cammack, Daniela 66
campaign finance, corruption and reform of 37, 42–3, 47n1, 50–54, 55, 60–1, 61n2, 191, 193, 201
campaigns, election: imperatives, strategy 27; 32–37, 41, 95–6, 106, 119, 123–5, 165, 195; media coverage 36; negative societal effects 5, 20–2, 39, 44, 110– 11, 125, 181–4, 246–7; presidential 14,16, 34, 40, 61n3, 97, 103; public attitudes towards 4, 20–1, 92, 108–9, 216n1; public involvement 20, 33, 92–3 136, 255; see also agenda setting; campaign finance, corruption and reform; primaries
candidates: knowledge about 17, 34, 56–9, 89–91; lying 119, 182, 194–5: preferences of voters 96; 99; 101–4; see also dark psychological traits, of politicians; ignorance, rational
checks and balances: under elections 71, 87n1, 108, 121, 200; under sortition 159, 198, 200, 231, 238; see also accountability
China see citizens’ assemblies, examples of
citizens’ assemblies, examples of: Australia 61n7, 87, 144, 214, 240, 251; Belgium G1000 87, 211, 214, 240, 256n5; British Columbia 11, 86, 180, 208–9, 252; China 213; climate-focused 38, 207, 214, 228; Denmark 212; France 214, 215; Germany 212; global 218, 227–9; Iceland 87, 210, 252; Ireland 74, 211,214, 249, 252, 256n3n4; Mongolia 213; Ontario 87, 210; Oregon 137, 211; Ostbelgien (East Belgium) model 171, 214–215, 249
Citizens United v. FEC 51
climate change 99; failure of elections to address 4, 37, 38, 40, 99, 130, 142, 193, 205n2 see also citizens’ assemblies, examples of
Clinton, Hillary 4
cognitive biases: availability heuristic 124; collective cognitive biases 154; confirmation bias 15, 98, 103, 122, 127–9, 146–8, 152, 158; Dunning-Kruger effect 129–30, 184; groupthink 84, 146, 148, 152, 154–9, 180–2, 236–7; halo effect 29–30; illusion of information adequacy 101, 129; illusion of knowledge 129–30, 164; overcoming 246; see also dark psychological traits; reasoning, motivated
collective intelligence: Aristotle on 145, 150, 186; and cognitive diversity 44, 150–55, 158–60, 178, 232, 248; Condorcet on 181; in sortition 44, 179, 201, 209; see also wisdom of crowds
competence: of politicians 11, 15, 34, 57, 119,127, 132–3, 150, 182–5; of citizens 11, 26, 90, 93, 150, 169, 175– 7, 186, 246; individual vs. group 86, 149, 156, 177–81
competition, psychological effects: on citizens 39, 96, 104, 107–109, 122, 125–8, 130, 177, 182, 243–4; on politicians 39, 47, 104, 106–7, 112, 120–2, 125–7, 133, 201
competitive “democracy” 5–7, 28, 39, 54–5, 69, 90, 96, 105–7, 111–14, 168, 243; see also partisanship; tribalism
compromise 44, 46–7, 105–7, 122, 125–6, 133, 244–5
confirmation bias see cognitive biases
Congress (US): behavior 3–4, 21, 23, 36–7, 39, 41–6, 52, 55, 123, 164, 193, 195; unrepresentativeness of 23–7, 53, 78–9, 120, 149
consensus 36, 58, 105–7, 143, 155, 207, 223
consent of the governed 17, 69–70, 76, 79, 202–4; see also legitimacy
constituent service 41–2, 123, 164
Constitution (US): amendment of 49, 71, 205n9; framing of 6, 14–15, 28, 29, 69–71, 75, 78, 80, 150, 211, 250; see also Federalist Papers; Madison, James
constitutions, other: ancient Greek 65, 66; French 72; Irish 38, 249; Mongolian 213; US states 54, 55
Coordination Council see multi-body sortition
corruption 16, 43, 119, 170, 121–2, 220, 245; among politicians 5, 27, 41–43, 49, 84, 133, 136, 192–3; defense against 11, 67, 80, 121, 160, 166, 170, 188–90, 197–201, 204, 216, 223–4, 232, 238–40; legalized (campaign finance) 43, 51–4, 80, 85
dark psychological traits: defense against 189; of politicians 24, 30, 79, 118–122, 125–6, 245; research into 21, 24–5, 30, 118, 120, 122, 126, 184; see also hubris syndrome
debate 10, 36, 38, 155, 158; verses deliberation 44–5, 127, 144–8, 230, 233–4, 237–8; see also reasoning
Declaration of Human Rights, UN 110–11
Declaration of Independence 69–70, 202-–3
delegitimization 242, 248–51, 253–4
deliberation: active vs. independent 141, 144, 156, 158–60, 177, 179, 181; conditions needed for 8, 32, 46, 112, 125, 244; distinct from negotiation 244–5; and diversity 10, 144, 150–4, 166; ideal 34, 96–7 143–5; integrative (win-win) 47, 106–7, 137, 145, 148, 159, 237; lack of in Congress 36, 44– 45, 75, 129 155, 169; social pressure in 15; under sortition 83–4, 94, 101, 128, 135, 137, 147–8, 168, 174, 180, 209; 231–3, 236–40 see also democracy, deliberative
deliberative polling 206, 212–13; see also Fishkin
democracy: definitions of 7, 13, 14–15; deliberative 105–6, 134, 143–158, 204; epistemic 44, 106, 148, 181; minimalist view of 16–19; optimistic view of 15–16; participatory (direct) 13, 66, 84, 88, 112, 134, 218, 227; see also multi-body sortition; polyarchy
depolarization see polarization
Dewey, John 17
Dienel, Peter (Planning Cells) 206
diversity: absence in elected chambers 10, 24, 58–9; cognitive 44, 151, 232; identity-based 81; under sortition 139, 166, 236, 240; trumps ability theorem 83, 106, 151–4, 178; value of 10, 44, 144, 148–153, 200; see also competence; expertise
Dryzek, John 75
Dunning-Kruger effect see cognitive biases
Edelman, Murray 29–30, 35, 117, 247
education 72, 79, 82, 86, 139, 150, 174, 177, 243; student government 224–6
egotism see dark psychological traits
election reform 48–61, 209–10; campaign finance reform 37, 43, 50–4, 60, 116, 166–7; primaries 55–6; redistricting (gerrymandering) 54–5; term limits 48–9; voter turnout 49–50; see also campaign finance, corruption and reform; proportional representation
elections 105, 133; corruption, source of 41–3; cost of 25; defects of 4–7, 17–22, 28, 33, 39, 44–5, 169; history of 72–73; as negative filtering mechanism 30, 73, 78–80, 117, 119, 121, 129, 183–4; non–governmental use of elections 218– 26; as oligarchic (aristocratic) 8, 15, 69, 72, 78, 83, 111, 114, 166; primary 34, 40, 55; and psychological effects on politicians 104; spending, effect on government 41–3, 49, 99, 124, 194; see also accountability; agenda setting; election reform; ignorance, rational; polarization; tribalism
elites see aristocracy; elections as as oligarchic (aristocratic); oligarchy
evolutionary psychology 28, 94–6, 107–8, 146
executives: as administrators 28, 31, 84, 187–9, 240, 253; as leaders 28, 108, 163, 187–9, 252–254; as scapegoats and heroes 17
expertise; illusion of political 93, 104, 129, 164,185–189; under sortition 150, 222, 235, 240
fear, use of 19–20, 50, 96, 125, 202
Federalist Papers: No.10 14, 108, 141, 200; No.35 81; No.51 107; No.63 70
Fishkin, James 96, 99, 144, 158, 160n1, 179–80, 212–13
Follett, Mary Parker 46–7, 106
Founders and Constitutional Framers of United States of America : amending of Constitution 71–2, 75; Constitutional design 28, 67, 107–8, 141, 200, 231, 250; elections, dangers of 5–6, 108, 171; natural aristocracy 67, 71, 78–9, 83, 149, 182–3; opposition to democracy 14, 69–70, 72, 180; see also Anti-Federalists; Madison
Ford, Henry J. 83
France: citizens’ convention on climate 38, 214; revolution 72, 74, 77–79; Yellow Vest movement 214
Galton, Francis 156
Gastil, John 27, 33, 137, 242, 245
gerrymandering 24, 39, 91, 167; see also election reform
global use of sortition 12, 227–9, 229n2
Greek democracy (ancient or Classical) 8, 13, 38, 65–7, 170–1, 233, 237; assembly (ecclesia) 65–6, 147, 233; Athenian 7–8, 13, 65–67, 178, 188, 198, 223, 224; council of 500 (boule) 65; courts (dikasterion) 65, 66, 237; legislative panels (nomothetai) 65, 147, 171, 237; lottery (sortition) to avoid partisanship 109
group intelligence see collective intelligence
groupthink see cognitive biases
Guerrero, Alexander 193–4
halo effect see cognitive biases
Hansen, Mogens 65–66
Harari, Yuval Noah 33
Heffernan, Margaret 149; see also Muir, William
heuristics 94, 123–4, 157, 169, 241; see also Greek democracy; interest groups; Italian city republics; leadership and followership
Hoover, Herbert 18
hubris syndrome 30, 79, 119–21
Iceland see citizens’ assemblies, examples
ignorance, rational: in elections 88–94, 101, 135, 141, 166, 168–9, 176, 192, 194–5, 210, 218, 220–1, 227; overcoming through sortition 102, 137, 189, 233, 247–8
incumbency: frequency of re-election 17–19, 41, 48–9, 54, 75, 191; power and corruption 41–3, 49, 121, 164, 186, 191–2, 198
information and availability cascades 84, 98–100, 124, 146, 156–7, 159; avoiding 232, 237
interest groups, special 4, 19, 27, 37, 42–3, 51–2, 61, 101, 108, 114–16, 235; resisting 123, 160, 165–6, 169, 195, 199, 204, 236; see also lobbying
Interest Panels see multi-body sortition
Internet use for sortition 12, 226–7
Ireland see citizens’ assemblies, examples
Italian city republics 121, 170, 198; Florence 67; use of lottery in 67; Venice 67
Iron Law of Oligarchy see Michels
James, C. L. R., 206
Jefferson, Thomas 6, 14, 70, 71, 77, 129, 177, 202
juries (court): as democratic model 8, 68, 167; history of 67–9; selection of 68–9, 84, 179
juror oath for sortition body 169
Kahneman, Daniel 94–95, 122, 124, 130, 168, 181
Keane, John 70
Keyssar, Alex 70
Klein, Ezra 100
Lafont, Cristina 143, 196–7, 203–4
Lakoff, George 95
Landemore, Hélène 44, 47, 92, 148, 151, 178, 188, 230
leadership: evolutionary origins of 28–9, 88; and followership 16, 28, 60, 97–101, 169, 184–5. 248, 256; myth of 29–30, 71; toxic leaders 3, 6, 21, 30, 40, 111,118–121, 132–3, 249; trust in 23, 28, 90, 103, 163–4, 220, 245–6; see also executives
Leahy, Patrick 42
legislative chambers, history of 67, 84
legitimacy: for existing governments 41, 248, 249; for sortition democracy 84, 136, 139, 144, 160, 196, 201–5, 228; see also consent; delegitimization
Leib, Ethan 231
Lenz, Gabriel 16, 56, 99, 101, 102, 108, 193, 195
Lippmann, Walter 14–15, 17, 90, 93
lobbying 19, 37, 39, 43–6, 61, 123–4, 136–7, 148, 164–166, 170, 193, 195, 234, 246
lottery see citizens’ assemblies; cognitive biases, overcoming; corruption, defense against; diversity; Greek democracy; Italian city republics; juries; multi-body sortition; probability; self-selection bias, under sortition
Machiavellianism see dark psychological traits
Macron, Emmanuel 214
Madison, James: Constitution, on drafting of 75, 107, 200; on democracy and republic 14, 15, 69, 70, 71, 78, 83; on elections 5, 75, 77–78; on factions (parties) 5, 6, 108, 231; on the size of the assembly 141; see also Founders and Constitutional Framers of United States of America
Magna Carta 67
Mansbridge, Jane 47, 80, 191–2, 196, 200–1
McConnell, Mitch 40
media (mass and social): bias in 12, 35– 36; distortion and manipulation 17, 23, 32, 36, 89, 99; 136, 168 polarization and 20–1, 127, 181; see also agenda setting
Mercier, Hugo 146–8
meritocracy 42, 71, 76–80, 168, 182
Michels, Robert: and Iron Law of Oligarchy 220, 222
Mill, John Stuart 106
Miller, Joshua 69
mini-publics see citizens’ assemblies; sortition
Morris, Gouverneur 70
Muir, William 149
multi-body sortition 11, 84, 90, 171, 234–41; Agenda Council 171, 215, 229, 234–5; Coordination Council 238; Interest Panel 137, 171, 229, 234, 235, 236, 237, 240, 241, 254; Oversight Council 171, 234, 239–40; Policy Jury 85, 130, 171, 233, 236, 237–8, 239, 241n2; Review Panel 168, 171, 188, 189, 211, 233, 234, 235–7, 238, 239, 241, 241n1; Rules Council 234, 238–9, 240
narcissism see dark psychological traits; elections and psychological effects on politicians; elections as negative filtering mechanism; hubris syndrome
natural aristocracy see aristocracy; elections as oligarchic (aristocratic); oligarchy
NewDemocracy Foundation 214; see also Australia
Nixon, Richard 79, 99, 113, 119
nomothetai see Greek democracy
non-governmental uses of sortition 12, 205, 212, 215, 218–29, 251
Obama, Barack 3, 40, 41, 97, 100, 104n3
oligarchy 13, 44, 67, 83–4, 111, 116, 225; avoiding with sortition 220–3; see also aristocracy; elections as oligarchic (aristocratic); Michels, Iron Law of Oligarchy
Ostbelgien model see Belgium
Ovadya, Aviv 12
Oversight Council see multi-body sortition
Page, Benjamin 114–15
Page, Scott 152
participation 13, 19–20, 32, 50, 88, 112–13, 134–5, 167–8; within sortition 138–41, 174–5, 226, 232–3, 235, 237, 242, 254–5
participatory democracy see democracy, participatory (direct)
partisanship, rise of 5–6, 11, 12, 14, 89, 98–100, 107; see also polarization
party membership 19–20
peeling strategy (transition) 250–54
Piven, Frances Fox 61n1
polarization 4, 7, 20–23, 89, 93, 97–111, 114, 122–3, 127–30, 176, 189, 192, 194, 244, 249; depolarization 130, see also leadership; partisanship; tribalism
Policy Jury see multi-body sortition
political parties, disputed benefits of 243–6
primary elections 21–2, 34, 39, 91, 113, 191; see also election reform
principle of distinction 72, 78, 80, 248, 253, 255
probability 85, 138, 141, 227, 236
proportional representation 52, 54, 76, 91, 103, 106, 116, 167, 192; as election reform in US 56–8, 59–60; and forming coalition government 57–8, 59, 89, 113, 155, 191, 202; government having consent of governed 70, and women 58–9
psychopathy see dark psychological traits
public financing of elections see campaign finance, corruption and reform
public opinion polls: believing voters are well-informed 89; about citizens compared to politicians 10, 11, 23, 79, 119; about Congressional performance 4, 10–11, 25, 26, 27, 99, 191; about democracy 7; juries compared to judges 175; about politicians and campaigns 4, 5, 70
rational ignorance see ignorance, rational
Reagan, Ronald 40
reasoning: argumentative theory of 95, 146–8, 159; motivated 104, 127, 148, 246
redistricting see gerrymandering
red/blue divide 20–23
referendum, problems with 88, 137, 168, 255; see also democracy, participatory (direct)
representation: as agent 24, 28, 74, 80, 82–3, 190–2, 195, 221, 244; by analogy (as portrait or map) 23, 77, 80, 166, 196; as delegate 74–5; descriptive (as mirror or likeness) 23, 27, 77, 80–3, 85, 136–9, 149, 151, 165–6, 231, 238, 240, 248; as trustee 74–5, 77, 81, 106; un-representative 5, 9–10, 23–7, 55, 58–9, 78, 99, 191; as a whole body 76, 77, 82–3, 86, 106, 178, 196; see also principle of distinction
republican (civic) virtue 71, 72, 77, 78, 79, 166, 168, 244
republic as distinct from democracy 14–15, 67, 69–70, 72, 121, 168, 170, 171n2, 202–3
responsiveness 17–19, 26–7, 81, 114–17, 174
Review Panel see multi-body sortition
right to vote see vote, the right to
Roosevelt, Teddy 177
Rosenzweig, Phil 29, 30, 133, 256
Rousseau, Jean Jaques 32, 65, 72
Rules Council see multi-body sortition
Rush, Benjamin 69
Schumpeter, Joseph: on elite competition 111–12, 181; on elites behaving as mobs 181; on existing “democracy” 105; on voter incompetence 90
self-selection bias: in competitive elections 135–7, 169; under participatory democracy 220; under sortition 138, 160, 166, 169–70, 208, 222, 232, 237, 240; see also stratified sampling
shark attacks 18–19
ship analogies 15, 18, 59, 77, 85, 186
Smith, Melancton 150
Sparta 65
special interests see interest groups
Sperber, Dan 146–8
stratified (scientific) sampling 86, 135, 139–41, 166, 169, 171, 173, 208, 211, 225, 227, 236
Stone, Peter 24
super flock see Muir, William
Surowiecki, James 150, 152, 156, 157–8, 184–5, 237, 246
system one, system two thinking see thinking fast and slow
term limits see election reform
Tetlock, Philip 186–7
thinking fast and slow 94–5, 97, 100–1, 103, 122, 124, 130, 168, 181–2, 247; see also Kahneman; tribalism
tribalism 89, 98–100, 107–11, 130, 158, 176, 189, 248; see also partisanship; polarization
Trump, Donald 3, 4, 7, 16, 20, 23, 28, 34, 37, 54, 61, 70, 98, 100, 103, 114, 118, 202
Vandamme, Pierre-Étienne 197
Van Reybrouck, David 59
Venice see Italian city-republics
vote, the right to 12, 27, 70, 78 172–3, 176, 255
voters deciding how to vote 57, 88–104, 157–8, 195, 197–8; see also heuristics; ignorance; leadership; partisanship; polarization
voter turnout 19, 33, 34, 49–50, 55, 91–2, 128
voting, expressive theory of 92–4
Washington, George 6, 71–2, 108
wealthy: among politicians 24, 69, 78, 81–2, 83, 120, 150; government protection of 71; juries as defense against 68; policy preferences of 81–2, 114–16; and political influence 4, 51, 55, 67, 70, 114–7, 136, 166, 168; psychology of 82, 120
Wilson, James 77
wisdom of crowds, conditions for 10, 16, 155–9; see also Surowiecki, James, and Galton, Francis
women: election of 24, 49; representation of 58–9, 86, 208, 255; treated as unequal people 12, 27, 154, 255
Zaller, John 99–100